World War One and its Aftermath
1914 - 1921
"lions led by donkeys" Sir Douglas Haig
the Christmas truce
An assessment of the leadership of General Sir Douglas Haig and the role he played on the Western Front in World War One.
- The development of the trench system
- Attempts to break the stalemate
- The War of Attrition Continues
- Weapons and New Technology
- Lions Led By Donkeys?
You will be required to read the material presented and links where needed. As you engage with the texts you will need to examine opposing views on issues and make your own assessments, draw your own conclusions. Complete the activities as required.
World War One - The Western FrontThe Development of the Trench System
World War One can be divided into 2 stages:
Stage One - 1914 - 1916 can be characterised by conventional warfare and movement. The initial battles involved the use of cavalry and infantry. The Battle of Marne (5 - 19 September 1915)was a turning point of the war. After the Battle of Marne both sides 'dug in' and then began the
race to the sea, where the trench lines ran for approximately 750 km spanning the Swiss border to the Belgian coast. The trenches were dug and the war of movement was over. The Generals were soon to learn that much of their own experiences and studies of battle were to have little to do with this new kind of war.
Activity One
1. Outline the problems the generals were faced with as the war developed into a
stalemate .2. What were some of the methods emplyed to combat a war in the trenches?
Attempts to Break the StalemateStage Two - 1916 - 1918 sees the war turn into a bloody
stalemate where neither side was able to make any significant gain until 1918. Although trenches had been used in other battles, trench warfare of World War One differed in the way it developed into a stalemate where movement over the four years of battle was minimal. Life in the trenches was difficult and the soldier was not only in danger from enemy fire, but also sickness and disease.This stage of the war is characterised by a number of offensives designed to break the stalemate and a dramatic increase in battle casualties. The Battle of Verdun was launched by the Germans under General von Falkenhayn on 21 February 1916. Verdun was chosen because it was a Fench fortress and symbol of French honour. It would also prevent an Allied attack on the Somme, where the Germans felt their position was weaker, and it also paved the way for an attack on Paris. This battle illustrated the concept of a 'war of attrition' where each side would aim to win at all costs.
In July 1916 the
Battle of the Somme was launched by Sir Douglas Haig, to draw attention away from Verdun. The battle began with a massive artillery bombardment for 7 days and it continued until 18 November 1916 with no breakthrough. Both the Allied and Germans suffered devistating losses. Total casualties for the battle were as follows:
- British: approximately 600,000 (according to the War Office) Other figures suggest 450,000;
- French: approximately 195,000
- German: approximately 450,000
The Battle of the Somme was a turning point in many ways. The losses that resulted from this battle can be attributed to the disillusionment that developed on the homefront. General Sir Douglas Haig, was to face harsh criticism over his role as Comander in Chief of the BEF for the duration of this battle.
Activity Two
1. News of such devistation was initially limited through strict censorship laws and limited official war reporters. Read the articles printed in the daily mirror and consider the information provided to those at home, the language used and the overall effect this was to have on the British Homefront.
2. In June 1916 before the battle of the Somme began, Haig wrote "the nation must be taught to bear losses. No amount of skill on the part of the high commanders, no training, however good, on the part of the officers and men, no superiority of arms and ammunition, however great, will enable victories to be won without the sacrifice of men's lives. The nation must be prepared to see heavy casualty lists."
Did Haig know of what was to occur, was it beyond his control - explain your answer. Consider what factors were beyond his control.
The War of Attrition ContinuesThe Battle of Passchendaele was an Allied offensive designed to break the German line and capture the two ports of Ostend and Zeebrugge, which were used by the Germans as U-boat bases. At this time German U-boats were sinking 25% of all supply ships and there was only 6 weeks supply of food left in Britain.
Passchendaele (the Third Battle of Ypres) was fought between 31 July and 7 November 1917. The British did not achieve a breakthrough and both sides fought in the worst conditions imaginable.
Activity Three
1. Read this assessment of Haig's role in the Battle of Passchendaele and prepare a response to Wilson, based on your reading so far. This should be a series of positives and negatives.
Weapons - New TechnologyDuring the war a much greater understanding of the potential of many weapons was developed. Technology outstripped tactics used and can be seen to contribute greatly to the stalemate. Modern weapons were efficient killing machines and as casualty lists rose dramatically in the second stage of the war so too did the use of machine guns.
New weapons revolutionized combat in World War One. Combat changed from a rapid, noble and relatively ephemeral thing to a new model : trench warfare. This new style of warfare was brought about principally by new technology that arose from the furnaces and factories of industrial Europe.
These are some weapons of mass destruction that were developed of improved during World War One.
1. Machine guns: These weapons were first used in the American Civil War to devastating effect. But with World War One their effectiveness reached frightening new levels. Firing up to 600 bullets a minute (the equivalent of 250 men with rifles), Machine Guns were then deemed to be 'weapons of mass destruction'.
2.
Artillery: These were the new and upgraded versions of cannons. TheBritish had been using artillery for four years, firing 170 million shells in that time. German scientists developed the biggest artillery ever known, 'Big Bertha' in 1914. Big Bertha, a 43 tonne howitzer, was so powerful it could fire at the heart of Paris from 120 kilometres away. The shells were also upgraded. The high-explosive shells were developed with thin casings and were filled with tiny lead pellets. This was so effective, that artillery fire was responsible for a third of all battle casualties, they also destroyed the landscape and surroundings.3. Gas Grenades: These were highly toxic, and very effective weapons. The Germans had invented 3 main gas grenades. The first was Chlorine gas, which was used at the battle of Ypres in 1915, killing thousands. Second was Phosgene gas and third was Mustard gas. This burned the lungs of the inhaler leaving them to die in agony. Gas masks were issued but their effectiveness was limited. Gas was the most feared of all, causing panic and fear.
4. Tanks: Tanks were known as 'The Chariots of God' at First, they were giant blocks of metal that could carry 1-2 personnel and travelled at about 5 kilometres per hour. But scientists and developers kept making new and improved tanks and by 1918 the Anglo-American Mark 8 could carry up to 8 men, and at the same time fire 208 shells and up to 13,000 bullets. Initially they were not utilised to their potential and were not as effective as they were to become.
5.
Planes: These were the new types of weapons use in advanced technological warfare. They had everything from mini scout planes to huge blimp like bombers called Zeppelins. Air warfare was not seen as an effective weapon.6. Naval Units: Naval ships were counted very important for some of the war. British specialised in Ships such as battleships, and the Germans specialised in
Submarines.
Activity Four1. Consider each of these weapons, their origin or development and consider whether weapons were developed as a result of trench warfare or whether trench warfare was a result of the weapons.
2. Assess which weapons were most effective in trench warfare, give reasons why. How did the technology improve as the war continued? In what ways did the Generals better utilise these weapons?
Lions Led By Donkeys?The phrase 'lions led bt donkeys' was part of an exchange between two German generals:
Ludendorff: The English soldiers fight like lions. Hoffman: True, but don't we know that they are lions led by donkeys.
The assessment of General Sir Douglas Haig has bee debated since World War One. Some consider him to be the donkey, who failed to adapt to modern warfare, while others see an alternate, more sympathetic view.
Activity Five
Read the following articles and consider the work you have completed. For additional information consider the debates that provide an alternative viewpoint.
Assess the leadership of General Sir Douglas Haig as Comander in Chief of the British Expeditionary Force during World War One.
prepared by Maree Cullen. (updated 27 Nov, 2002)Bibliography
McAndrew, A., Thomas, D., Cummins,P., The Great War and its Aftermath 1914 - 1921, Cambridge University Press, UK 2001
McCallam, A. Evidence of War, Heinemann, Melbourne 2000
Stewart,D., Fitzgerald,J., Pickard,A., The Great War, Thompson Nelson, Australia 2000
The Christmas truce - 1914
Christmas truce sites